Sixteenth in a Series
Last time, we used Clement of Alexandria’s writings to understand some of Christianity’s early concepts about God. We found within Christianity, God is the Good and the basis for all existence, morality, and knowledge. This is consistent with Plato’s view of the Good in his writing, although Plato was a pagan philosopher.
This articles asks a similar question about Allah’s nature. Are ideas of Allah and God similar or different? We also mentioned last time that all societies must have an underlying moral basis to be successful. What is the moral basis of a society based upon Islam? Does that moral foundation differ from a society based upon Judeo-Christian tenets? If so, how do they differ? It won’t be an exhaustive review, but enough to understand some of the main ideas and be able to make comparisons.
So, why start with morality when looking at Allah’s nature? We can answer that question in two parts. First, Islam considers Allah to be First Cause, the cause of all things. This includes being the source for everything including existence, morality, and knowledge. So Allah’s nature should have a direct bearing on the underlying morality of a society based upon Islam. Second, our Founders chose to create a society founded upon Judeo-Christian values after they had completed their research into all known historical governance models and how they worked. So if the moral underpinnings of societies based upon these two ideologies differ, then those differences likely matter. Again, the goal here is understanding, so we may draw some inferences where differences exist.
Greek Philosophy Influence
We’ll first look first at Neoplatonism. Neoplatonic thought developed during the early Middle Ages, and influenced Islam. Ignaz Goldziher, in his book Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, noted several outside influences on Islam’s development, particularly Roman law on shari’ a and Neoplatonism on its theology. Augustine also wrote extensively about Plotinus and his student Porphyry’s neoplatonic thoughts, and their short-comings, in The City of God—several hundred years before Muhammad’s birth.
So how has Neoplatonism influenced Islamic theology? Allah is an absolute simple unity; so absolute it leaves no room for distinctions as provided by Aristotle, Clement of Alexandria, or Augustine. Also, no room for being, nature, or essence. Allah is transcendent in nature and pure will. Therefore, man cannot know Allah. As man cannot know Allah, He is extrinsic; meaning outward or external. Allah is the source for all. Therefore, any names given to Allah are what he causes, and not part of His nature.
In their book, Answering Islam, Norman Geisler and Abdul Saleeb developed the following list of characteristics describing Allah as: (1) absolute oneness, (2) absolute will, (3) absolute justice, (4) absolute mercy, (5) absolute inscrutability, and (6) absolute ruler. To this list I have added absolute foreknowledge, for a First Cause without absolute foreknowledge cannot truly be First Cause. Each is briefly outlined in the following sections. However, note that Neoplatonism led to some differing beliefs in Allah’s nature even within different Islamic groups. It is therefore not possible to find a single universal view on Allah’s nature within Islam.
Absolutely One
Surah 112 says, “Say: He is Allah, the One! Allah, the eternally Besought of all! He begets not nor was begotten, and there is not comparable to Him.” Allah is beyond all being, time, and space. There is no knowable nature or essence. This view of unity is so strong that it leaves no room for plurality at all; a form of nominalism.
This view creates several inconsistencies, some of which we’ll come back and discuss later. The first has to do with the Qur’an itself. Orthodox Islam teaches the Qur’an is uncreated. It is Allah’s eternal speech. It is Allah, but separate from Him. This distinction presents a plurality that is inconsistent with the notion of Allah as a simple unity. Incidentally, this type of distinction is the same as that used to describe the relationship between God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, which Islam denies as being false teaching.
Absolute Will
The simple unity that is Allah consists of pure will. It is this will that gives unity to His actions. The effects of these actions may be used to identify Allah’s will, but Allah’s will itself is unknowable. Allah is therefore extrinsic; only known from the effects of His will. This leads to a second inconsistency, that is how can this will give so many things that it does not have? Plotinus answered this by describing the One as an overwhelming power, the only power capable of performing such acts—but even Plotinus in the end was not very satisfied with that answer.
Two relevant passages from the Qur’an are, “And if We had so willed, We could have given every soul its guidance, but the word from Me concerning evildoers took effect that I will fill Hell with the jinn and mankind together.” (Surah 32, 13) And, “As for the disbelievers, whether you warn them or you warn them not it is all one for them; they believe not. Allah has sealed their hearing and their hearts, and on their eyes there is a covering. Theirs will be an awful doom.” (Surah 2, 6-7)
Absolute Justice and Absolute Mercy
The Judge and the Merciful are two of Allah’s names. As He is pure will and extrinsic, one can only know Allah by His actions—the things He wills. Allah’s names are what He causes. Surah 2, 210 states, “Wait they for nothing else then that Allah should come unto them in the shadows of the clouds with the angels? Then the case would be already judged. All cases go back to Allah (for judgment).” And Surah 3, 31, “Say (O Muhammad, to mankind): If you love Allah, follow me, Allah will love you and forgive you your sins. Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.”
Allah being pure will leads to a serious moral problem. From Answering Islam, “if God is pure Will, without any real essence, then he does not do things because they are right; rather, they are right because he does them. In short, God is arbitrary about what is right and wrong. He does not have to do good.” This leads to another question. If Allah’s will is responsible for good through its actions, then is it not also responsible for evil? Further, Allah is capable of changing His will over time. The changes in the revelations received by Muhammad form the basis for abrogation of verses within the Qur’an, that later verses abrogate, change, or cancel out earlier ones.
Absolutely Inscrutable
As Allah is pure will, His nature is absolutely unknowable by man. We mentioned above Allah’s names reflect the effects He causes, but He is not identified with any of those things. This leads to a core tenet of Islam, that it is not our purpose to know Allah, but only to obey Him. We are not to meditate on his essence, but instead to submit to His will. Indeed, that is the meaning of the word Muslim, it is one who submits to Allah’s will.
“If Allah afflicts you with some hurt, there is none who can remove it save Him; and if He desires good for you, there is none who can repel His bounty. He strikes with it whom He will of His bondsmen. He is the Forgiving, the Merciful.” (Surah 10, 107)
Absolute Ruler
Allah is the creator and absolute ruler of all. Two verses from the Qur’an. “The Originator of the heavens and the earth! When He decrees a thing, He says unto it only; Be! And it is.” (Surah 2, 117) And the second is, “Allah! There is no God save Him, the Alive, the Eternal. Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him. Unto Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is in the earth. Who is he that intercedes with Him save by His leave? He knows that which is in front of them and that which is behind them, while they encompass nothing of His knowledge save what He will. His chair includes the heavens and the earth, and He is never weary of preserving them. He is the Sublime, the Tremendous.” (Surah 2, 255).
Allah needs nothing, but everything needs Him. The relationship between Allah and man is not one of love between Creator and creation, but rather one of master and slave. Judeo-Christian worship involves a relationship between two persons, the worshiper and God. How can one worship what they cannot know? This leads to the last characteristic of absolute foreknowledge.
Absolute Foreknowledge
Orthodox Islam teaches absolute predestination of both good and evil. Indeed, a tenet within Islam is we are born with our fate hung around our neck, and we will not know that fate until revealed to us on the Day of Judgment. Yes, the Qur’an has verses supporting both free will and predestination, but the views supporting predestination dominate most of Islam. This determinism leads to several problems. First, Allah performs contradictory actions based upon His will. Second is a moral problem, as noted in one of the earlier Qur’an verses, Allah could have chosen to save all of mankind – but chose not to do so. Finally, a third problem has already been mentioned. That is that this view makes Allah responsible for both good and evil.
Relevant verses from the Qur’an in this area include the following, “Say (unto them): Would you teach Allah your religion, when Allah knows all that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth, and Allah is Aware of all things.” (Surah 49, 16). Another is, “On the day when Allah will raise them all together and inform them of what they did. Allah has kept account of it while they forgot it. And Allah is Witness over all things.” (Surah 58, 6).
Some Thoughts
Both Allah and God are the creators of all creation; that creation comes about by simply speaking it into existence from nothing. In that respect Islam and Christianity are similar. This post began asking questions about the morality underlying a society formed around Islam, and whether that moral basis differs from one based upon Judeo-Christian tenets. From the information above, we can point to several differences, including;
- God has being, essence, and nature, consistent with His creation. Allah is pure will.
- God created creation out of love. Allah created creation so man might worship Him.
- God is knowable by; what He has told us about Himself, His creation, and the Son. Allah is unknowable. Inscrutable.
- Reason and faith are necessary to have knowledge of God. Allah requires only faith and obedience as man cannot know Him.
- God is good. Man’s turning away is the cause of evil. Allah alone causes all things through His will. Therefore, as good and evil both exist, these must come from what He wills.
- God is consistent. Through His providence, He has taken the bad decisions men will make and turned them to His good. Allah is inconsistent as His will changes over time. Right and wrong become a matter of what Allah wills.
- God offers the opportunity of redemption to all man. Allah is capable of saving all mankind, but has chosen not to do so.
- Man predestines himself through the decisions he makes. Allah has determined one’s fate since before the beginning of time.
- There is a relationship between God and His worshippers based upon love. There is no relationship between Allah and his followers as man cannot know Him, only obey Him.
Implications
There are many implications for society, but two follow. First, as outlined by Augustine, a society turned toward God is properly oriented toward good and requires its citizens develop virtue. This is the City of God. In a society turned toward Allah, morality is still important, but that importance is trumped by the expediency of implementing His will. As His will is inconsistent, both good and bad actions are appropriate, and dependent only on the outcomes achieved. What matters is obedience to Allah’s will. Second, a society turned toward God is hopeful, as man can better himself by improving his condition through the decisions he makes. A society turned toward Allah has in store for it whatever fate Allah has already determined. There exists a kind of fatalism as Allah’s will determines their fate.
